AwxbijÖËMk AxZKawk (Myth) GKUw MVdxgdøwo  (Structure) AwËQ jw Ìlxh-þèwDËok iËZw dÙxgšwdyËbk bÙxÄk k™dkxmôËZ ckw eËr Ggv jwk xhZk ÌaËK Awxbi ggêk gdø iwdËok  (The Savge Mind) AwewZ-AšwZ xPìæwhwgdwKùedwk gYêwXø kÕe kwicdÖk iËZw ÌPwËLk owiËd DbzhwxoZ pËt IËV„ xKìç AwcÖxdK jÖËMk Aaêwu cdZwxìèK jÖËMk AxZKaw†xl AwZôËMwed KËk awËK dyËkU og ZËaøk ewakP^wBËtk Zlwt Ggv Zaø iwËd kwRwkwRrwk xovpwod KwrwKwxrk Kwxpdy, eÞwowbP¢ßwìæ Awk jÖ¦xgMÞËpk xggkY, iÖxÄËit KËtKRd Iikwp-DËibwËkk Aagw GKwËlk þñdwicdø KËtKRd gøx£ßk KyxZêKlwe„ glw gwÉlø, GB BxZpwo ÌbËmk BxZpwo dt, ÌlwKoiwËRkI BxZpwo dt„ GKaw AwR ogêRdþñyKÚZ„ ZbÖexk AwiwËbk ÌbËmk HxZpwxoKkw BxZpwoPPêw xmËLËQd BvËkRËbk KwQ ÌaËK„ dÙxgbøw eÞZíxgbøw BZøwxbk owpwËjø hwkËZk oÖbÔk ARwdw AZyËZk BxZpwo, eÞcwdZ BvËkRËbk AxhhwgKËZò, eÖdkØbzcÙZ pËtËQ„ GKaw oËZøk LwxZËk AþñyKwk Kkw jwt dw„ GxbK ÌaËK xgbøwdÖkwMy KËtKRd BvËkËRk KwËQ Awikw FYy, Ìjid Kwxdvpwi, iwmêwl, ÌgMlwk, pwUd Ggv AwkI AËdËK„ xKìç ‘AwcÖxdK’ jÖËMk BxZpwo AdÖmylËdk ÌqË¢ BvËkRkw dwdwxbK ÌaËK GËbmyt HxZpwxoKËbk xgPwk-gÖx¦ËK ÌNwlwËU-Ìc^wtwËU KËk xbËtËQd„ DexdËgxmK gÖx¦Rygyk iËZw Awikw BvËkRËbk †kØxMxk Aˬk iËZw ÌiËd xdËtxQ„ AwcÖxdK jÖM iwËd BvËkR mwoKËbk jÖM, ZwB AwcÖxdK jÖËMk BxZpwo-gøwLøwt mwoKkw AwiwËbk gÖxSËtËQd Ìj Z^wkwB AwcÖxdKZwk hMyka Ggv AwcÖxdKZw iwËd eÞMxZ AMÞxPìæw, owiwxRK I ciêyt K×ovÆwk-iÖx£ß, AaêÐdxZK-kwRÐdxZK AMÞMxZ, jwk MwxYxZK ÌjwMfl pl ‘dgRwMÙxZ’, Ìjid BËtwËkwËek ‘ÌkËdo^wo’ ÌoBkKi„ ‘kKi’ ÌbËL Awikw c^wxcËt xMËtxQ xKìç kKiUw Ìj ‘xK kKi’ Zw Awk ÌhËg ÌbxLxd„ owbw (White) HxZpwxoKkw gËlËQd AZGg Kwlw (Black Native) HxZpwxoKËbk Zwk eÖdkwgÙx£ Kkw Qwrw ÌKwËdw MxZ ÌdB„ ZwB iËd pt, AwiwËbk ÌbËmk AwcÖxdKKwËlk gÛwÊËYw£k gÙx¦RygyËbk xVK AøwåUxdI MÞwixok ovšwdÖowËk ‘Organic’ I ‘Traditional’ ÌMwÅyËZ x§xPxpßZ Kkw jwt dw„* xgÛxUm mwoKËMwÅyk ÌlRÖrkÕËe iÔlZ Z^wËbk ‘organic’ gËlB xPxpßZ KkËZ pt, jxbI MÞwixok ‘traditional’ ÌMwÅyhÖ£ß bÖPwkRd hwoiwd þñxdhêk gÖx¦Rygy xQËld dw Ìj Zw dt, xKìç Z^wkw gøxZ¢ßi„ gøxZ¢ßi, gÖx¦RygyËbk ÌqË¢, AwiwËbk AwËlwPø dt, AwewZ BxZpwËok MxZxdYêt KkwB AwiwËbk lqø„

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* Antonio Gramsci; The Modern Prince & other Writings, N. Y. 1970 – ‘The Formation of Intellectuals’ Acøwt bÛÄgø„

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DËlöLø pl, BËtwËkweyt ‘ÌkËdo^wËo’k iËWlxU BvËkR HxZpwxoKËbk KwQ ÌaËK MÞpY KËk AwiwËbk ÌbËm xdxgêPwËk j^wkw eÞËtwM KkËZ AZÖøuowpy pËtËQd Z^wkw GKRwËZk AxhRwZ KËlËR ptZ xmqwlwh KËkËQd (Ìjid ÌeÞxoËWxëo KËlËR), ekyqwk eÞxZËjwxMZwt Adø oKlËK bwxgËt UeËK oËgêwâP þÿwd AxcKwk KËkËQd, AZGg ‘BxZpwo’ iwËd ‘xZxd’ Ggv ‘xZxd’ Awk ‘BxZpwo’ Axhdí Ggv Z^wk iwKêogwby gøwLøwdI A¸wìæ„ GBUwB xg¸wxìæKk UÛøwxRxW„ Aaêwu GB iwKêoyt HxZpwxoK gøwLøwB dgRwMÙxZk eÞZøËtk xdxi£KwkY„ Agmø GB UÛøwxRxWk iÔËl AwkI GKxU gr KwkY AwËQ Ggv ÌoUw pl ‘hwkËZ BvËkR mwoËdk flwfl’ o¹Ë¬ Kwlê iwKêËok Dx£ß†xl„ GkKi GKxU Dx£ß D¦ÙZ KËk (gwvlw ZRêiw) AwR ÌaËK xZxkm gQk AwËM (ZLd Awiwk xdËRk gtoI xZxkm) ‘gwvlwk dgRwMÙxZ’ ÌlLw Awkº KËkxQlwi„ (eÞai Acøwt ‘dgRwMÙxZËKëbÛ KxlKwZw’ bÛÄgø)„ AËdK gr exkKùedw xQl, xZdLË¡ GB dgRwMÙxZk BxZpwo  kPdw Kkg, xKìç Ìmn ejêìæ Zw Kkw ptxd, ÌKgl  eÞai L¡ ‘eúPwbhÔxi’ xpËoËg eÞKwxmZ pËtxQl 1355 oËd„ Zwkek 1385 od ejêìæ AwkI xZxkm gQk KwUl, BxZpwoPPêwk AwxbMŠw xbËt AËdK ÌNwlw Rl gËt ÌMl ÌbLlwi„ AËdK eÞmí RwMl iËd, AËdK eÞmí„ mpk ÌaËK MÞwËik xbËK ZwKwgwk BâQw pl eÞgl„ Abiø BâQw„ mpËk Rdô, mpËk iwdÖn pËlI MÞwËik eËa ew gwxrËt PlËZ Awkº KËk Kõwxìæ Ìgwc Kxkxd KLdI, AwRI Kxk dw, gto pËlI gwvlwk MÞwËik iwdÖn, MÞwËik oiwR, MÞwËik Rygdjw¢w, MÞwËik ovÆÚxZ þñPËq ÌbLËZ ÌbLËZ gwkvgwk iËd pËZ lwMl, ex¡ËZkw Dxdm mZËK gwvlwk Ìj ÌkËdo^wo gw dgRwMkËYk Kaw gËld, ÌoUw xK ebwaê? ÌKwawt Ggv KLd ‘RwMkY’ pl? RwMl Kwkw? KlKwZw mpk jxb ‘dgRwMÙxZËKëbÛ’ pt, jxb ÌkËdo^wËok oÔjê ‘ÌRøwxZk KdKeËbôk’ iËZw KlKwZwk AwKwËm DxbZ pËt awËK, ZwpËl KlKwZwk LÖg KwQwKwxQ MÞwËiI, ÌbrËmw gQk eËkI, ÌKd Aiwgoøwk kwËZk iËZw A¬Kwk? ÌKd AZyËZk ÌQ^rwK^wawt ÂËt MÞwËik iwdÖn AwRI Mhyk NÖËi AÐPZdø? ÌKd Ìe#kwxYK jÖËMk þñËeík ÌNwËk AwRI ZwËbk þñeíPwxkZw? GkKi AËdK eÞmí„ AËdK ovmt„

Kwlê iwKêo 1853 owËl New York Tribune ex¢Kwt 10 RÖd, 24 RÖd I 22 RÖlwB ZwxkËL jaw¢ßËi ‘The British Rule in India’ ‘The East India Company – It’s History and Results’ Ggv ‘The Future Results of British Rule in India’ dwËi xZdxU eÞg¬ ÌlËLd„ ZLd gwvlwk ‘dgRwMkYegê’ kwiËiwpd I xWËkwRytwdËbk jÖM AxZ¢ßi KËk xgbøwowMËkk jÖËM ebweêY KËkËQ„ kwiËiwpËdk oËŠ Kwlê iwKêËok ÌbLw ptxd, iwKêo ZLd Qw¢, jxbI Ìgdzawi, DBlgwkËfwoê, kgwUê IËtd Ggv AwkI AËdËKk oËŠ Z^wk ÌbLw pËtxQl„ eÞai ÌlLwxU xUÛxgDËd eÞKwxmZ pgwk ek (10 RÖd, 1853) iwKêo 14 RÖd ZwxkËL l¡d ÌaËK GËŠloËK GKxU xPxVËZ ÌlËLd :[1]

Your article on Switzerland was of course a direct smack at the leader in the Tribune (against centralization, etc) and..... I have continued this hidden warfare in a first article on India, in which the destruction of the native industry by England is described as revolutionary. This will be very shocking to them. For the rest the whole rule of Britain in India was swinish, and is to this day.

The stationary character of this part of Asia – despite all the aimless movement on the political

surface – is fully explained by two mutually dependent circumstances : (1) The public works were the business of the Central Government ; (2) besides these the whole empire, not counting the few larger towns, was resolved into villages, which possessed a completely separate organization and formed a little world in themselves.

These idyllic republics, which jealously guarded only the boundaries of their village against the neighbouring village, still exist in a fairly perfect form in the North-Western parts of India which have but recently fallen into the English hands. I do not think one could imagine a more solid foundation for the stagnation of Asiatic despotism. And however much the English may have Irelandised the country, the breaking up of those stereotyped primitive forms was the sine qua non (essential condition) of Europeanisation. The tax-gatherer alone was not the man to achieve this. The destruction of their archaic industry was necessary in order to deprive the villages of their self-supporting character.

xUÛxgDd ex¢Kwk xZdxU kPdw Ggv GkKi KËtKxU xPxV AwiwËbk ÌbËmk iwKêogwby HxZpwxoKËbk dgRwMkYZË£òk Ìo#c kPdwt MxaK þæ˺k iËZw KwR KËkËQ, ÌjËpZ× G†xl Kwlê iwKêo xlËLËQd„ GËŠlzo Ìjid ‘The Class Struggle in France’ (Marx) MÞËìÿk eÞai eÖdkziÖbÛËY hÔxiKw xlËL (iwPê 1895) ÌmwcdgwbyËbk  (Revisionist) †kØk KwR KËkxQËld AšwZowËk,[2] iwKêoI ÌZixd ‘hwkËZ xgÛxUm mwoËdk flwfl’ o¹Ë¬ GB kPdw†xl I xPxVe¢ xlËL iwKêogwËbk jwxìèK xgKÚxZk ea oÖMi KËk xbËtËQd„ Ìjid kwRdyxZ oiwR ovÆÚxZk oËŠ AaêdyxZk Aaêwu Duewbd gøgþÿw I DuewbdoóeËKêk ÑkxLK oóeKê þÿwed KËk ‘Vulgar Marxism’-Gk xgKwm pËtËQ ÌZixd„ ixko MËbxlËtk (Maurice Godelier) gËlËQd

how are we to conceive the relations between the determining structure and the dominant one, and what determining in economic relations in it that dictates that there shall be dominance by kinship-relations or by politico-religious relations? The question could not be answered, or even asked, by dogmatic Marxism and the other forms of that vulgar materialism to which dogmatic Marxism belongs, even though it denies the affinity. For vulgar materialism, the economy, which it reduces to the relations between technology and environment, ‘produces’ the given society, giving rise to it as an epiphenomenon. This means refusing to see the irreducible differences between the levels and structures of social life, the reason for the relative autonomy with which they operate, and reducing all levels to so many functions, either apparent or concealed, of economic activity.

MËbxlËtk eÞmí KËkËQd Ggv LÖg oŠZ eÞmí[3]

How could this hypothesis be reconciled with the fact for example, that within many primitive societies it is relations of kinship between men that dominate social organization…. or that religious relations seem to dominate Indian society, dividing men into a hierarchy of castes in accordance with an ideology of purity and impurity…?

oŠZ ÌZw gËUB, LÖg †kØZòeÔYê eÞmí KËkËQd MËbxlËtk Ggv GB eÞËmík D£Ëkk o¬wËd xZxd dÙZË£òk AdÖmylËd eÞgÙ£ pËtËQd„

            I therefore became an anthropologist.

In association with Professor Levi-Strauss, who took a close interest in my project and obtained for me all the facilities I needed in order to carry it out, I therefore undertook to initiate myself into anthropology, while devoting special attention to what is called ‘economic anthropology’, the field that it seemed ought to include the data of my theoretical problems and perhaps the elements of their solution.

oiwRUw pl ‘oiÔp’ xgËmn Ggv oiÔp (aggregates) bÖkKËik pËZ ewËk„ GKkKi pl ‘AjÖZxo¦wgtg oiÔp’  (those of which the parts are in union and fusion, being lost in the whole), Awk GKkKi pl ‘jÖZxo¦wgtg oiÔp’ (mechanical aggregates – collection of distinct and independent parts)„ ogêþæËkk iwdg oiwRB AjÖZxo¦wgtg oiÔp, Ggv Dek ÌaËK jZ xdËPk þæËkk xbËK ÌdËi jwItw jwt ZZ ÌbLw jwt Ìj Zwk GB AjwxìèK kÕeUw Ìgm eÞKU„ ÌoLwËd oiwËRk QxgUw ZygÛ ÌfwKwËo LÖg exkûKwk ÌbLw jwt„ oiwRxhx£k AaêdyxZ jxb oiwËR DekZlwk GKiw¢ xdtìèK pZ ZwpËl AwRËKk oiwËRk AËdK xgËkwËck, AËdK RxUlZwk oiwcwd opËRB pËt ÌjZ„ Zw ptxd„

ptxd Zwk KwkY oiwRMrd oiwRiwdo Ggv iwdÖn, ÌKwËdwUwB xVK okl ewxUMxYËZk iËZw opR dt„ iwdÖËnk oËŠ iwdÖËnk oóeKê, iwdÖËnk oËŠ ÌbgZwk oóeKê, iwdÖËnk oËŠ oiwËRk oóeKê, oiwËRk oËŠ AaêdyxZk oóeKê, kwRdyxZk oóeKê, owxpZøovÆÚxZxmùeKlwk oóeKê, ÌKwËdwUwB ‘BDxdxlxdtwk’ dt, okl ÌkLwk iËZw oóeKê dt bÖ’Ët-bÖ’Ët Pwk dt„ bÖ’Ët bÖ’Ët owËr-Pwk gw e^wP gËlB ogê¢ GZeÞKwËkk Aowi™oø Ggv AwewZxgþôtKk NUdwk GZ ÑgxP¢ø„ eÖxaeÖþæKMZ gwþægZwk oËŠ eÞKÚZ owiwxRK RygËdk gwþægZwk ewaêKø ÌbËL Awikw eËb-eËb AgwK pËt jwB„ Zawxe eÖxaMZ  gwþægZwk ÌlR cËk MkØk ÌlR cËk Aˬk dMk ÌbLwk iËZw, Awikw GxMËt Pxl, owiwxRK exkgZêd-xggZêd-xgeöËgk þñeí ÌbxL, eÞKÚZ RygdoZø I oiwRgwþægËK GxrËt jwB„ Awikw ÌPwL ÌiËl ÌbxL dw, id LÖËl gÖSËZ PwB dw Ìj owiwxRK xPìæwhwgdw, owiwxRK gøgpwk, owiwxRK x¢ßtwKiê, ogxKQÖkz xgxhdí þæk  (levels) AwËQ, xgxhdí Mrd (structures) AwËQ Ggv AËdK oit GK GKxU þæËk, GKB MrËdk ÌP#px¥k iËcø G†xl Ìgm þÿwtyhwËg xgkwR KËk, exkgZêËdk ÌKwËdw ÌXDËtk AwNwËZ xgPxlZ pt dw„ Ìjid AwiwËbk ÌbËmk RwxZgYêËhb gøgþÿw„ mZ-mZ mZw²yk xdiêi KmwNwZ opø KËk, mZ mZ owcÖoìæ ovÆwkËbk iwdgZwk Dbw£ Awpµwd DËeqw KËk, mZopoÛ kwÄÛdwtKËbk RwxZowËiøk gwYy xgxcxdËnc AwBdKwdÖd AwgRêdwþæÔËe xdËqe KËk, AwRI 1978 owËlI jLd ÌbLw jwt Ìj ÌoB RwxZËhbgøgþÿw xpëbÖ oiwËRk ogËPËt iRgÖZ xhx£kÕËe eÞwt-AU×U kËtËQ, AaP AaêdyxZ-ÌUKËdwlxRk AMÞMxZ-DdíxZ AdþñyKwjê, ZLd hwgËZ pt Ìj GB gøgþÿwUw Ky Ggv Zwk AìæxdêxpZ ÌKwd RwbÖgËl Zwk GB Aik Aqt kÕe AwRI eÞKU„ MËbxlËtk ‘Irreducible differences between the levels and structures of social life’ Ges ‘the relative autonomy with which they  operate’glËZ GB KawB iËd pt glËZ ÌPËtËQd„ AwiwËbk ÌbËmk GB þñtvx¢ßt xgxhdí owiwxRK þæk I Mrd†xl xK kKi Zw dw gÖSËl ÌKd Dxdm mZËK gwvlw ÌbËm xKxéu dZ×d xPìæwhwgdw Aagw xmqw-gøgþÿwk Awibwxdk fËl, DeËkk ovKyYê þæËk xKQÖ owiwxRK AwËlwrd NUËlI, BËtwËkwËek iËZw ÌKwËdw ÌkËdo^wo ptxd, Zw gÖSËZ ewkw oºg pËg dw„

oiwRxgšwdyËbk iËZ ‘ÌkËdo^wo’ gw dgRwMÙxZk lqY†xl icøjÖM I AwcÖxdK jÖËMk ox¬qËYk HxZpwxoK owqø gpd KËk„ icøjÖËMk oËŠ AwcÖxdK jÖËMk xgËâQb dgRwMkËYk GB lqY†xlk iËcø oÔxPZ pt„ hd iwxUêd gËlËQd[4]

the typological importance of the renaissance is that it makes the first cultural and social breach between the Middle Ages and modern times : it is a typical early stage of modern age.

AwcÖxdK jÖM glËZ GLwËd cdZwxìèK jÖËMk Kaw glw pËtËQ„ oÖZkwv dgRwMkËYk Adøwdø eÞoŠ D¤wed I AwËlwPdw Kkwk AwËM AwiwËbk eÞai ÌbLw DxPZ gwvlw ÌbËmk ZuKwËlk AaêÐdxZK AgþÿwËK KZbÔk ejêìæ cdZËìèk ÑmmgKwl glw jwt„ eÞmí pl, cdZËìèk AaêÐdxZK lqY†xl xK? Kwlê iwKêo gËlËQd[5]

The producer may become a merchant and capitalist, in opposition to agricultural natural

economy and to the guild organized handicrafts of medieval town industry. This is the really revolutionary way. Or the merchant may take possession of production directly.

DuewbK gxYêK (merchant) pËZ ewËk Aagw e^ÖxRexZI    (capitalist) pËZ ewËk„ jxb Zw pt ZwpËl gÖSËZ pËg Ìj KÚxnxdhêk AKÚx¢i þñwhwxgK AaêdyxZ Ggv xMÀ gw ovNxhx£K pþæxmùeËK ÌKëbÛ KËk icøjÖËMk Ìj dMkxmùe MËr IËV Zwkw Zwk xgËkwcy„ Zwk KwkY icøjÖËMk KÚnK Rxibwk KwkØxmùey eÞËZøËKk AwxaêK þñwËaêk oËŠ AwcÖxdK jÖËMk gxYK I e^ÖxRexZËbk þñwËaêk xgËkwc I ovNwZ Axdgwjê„ GB xgËkwc I ovNwËZk xhZk xbËt BËtwËkwËek AËdKËbËm gxYêK I e^ÖxRexZkw  icøjÖËMk dMk†xl AxcKwk KËkËQ, dMËkk oËŠ MÞwËik xgËâQb I ovNnê Awkº pËtËQ, ¢ßËi Rxibwk I KÚnKkw ekwxRZ pËtËQ Ggv dMËk-dMËk gxYK I e^ÖxRexZkw ÌmÛYyMZhwËg kwÄÛyt qiZw bLl KËkËQ„ GBhwËg exúPËi BËtwËkwËek xgxhdí AéËlk cdZËìèk xgKwm pËtËQ Ggv AwcÖxdK jÖËMk Awxghêwg pËtËQ„ AwiwËbk ÌbËm hwkZgËnê gw gwvlw ÌbËm Zw ptxd„ Zwk eÞcwd KwkY AwiwËbk ekwcydZw„ Ìj xgËbmy mwoKkw AwiwËbk ÌbËm kwÄÛyt qiZw bLl KËkxQl, Zwkw AwiwËbk AaêÐdxZK DdíxZ Aagw cdZwxìèK gøgþÿwk D¨Ëgk AdÖKÔl exkËgm oÙxÄ Kkw ZwËbk xdËRËbk e^ÖxRexZ-owiÛwRøgwby þñwËaêk xgËkwcy iËd KkZ„ iËd Kkw þñwhwxgK„ cdZwxìèK-owiÛwRøgwby ÌbËmk iËcø Bvl¡ oKËlk AMÞYy I AMÞR, Ggv BvlË¡k iËZw owkw eÙxagygøwey xgkwU owiÛwRø Rt KËk eÞxZÅw lwh KkËZ eÙxagyk Awk ÌKwËdw Ìbm ekgZêyKwËl ewËkxd„* Zwk  Dek AwiwËbk ÌbËmk iËZw GkKi eÞwKÚxZK I iwdxgK oóeËbk xbK ÌaËK xgmwl ÌbmI eÙxagyËZ Awk x§Zyt ÌKwawI xQl dw„ AZGg GB ÌbËmk eÞwKÚxZK Hmðjê Ggv iwdxgK oóeb ÌmwnY KËk xdËRËbk ÌbËmk (BvlË¡k) mÛixmËùek bÛØZ DdíxZ I RwZyt oóeb gÙx¦ KkwB ZwËbk eÞcwd lqø xQl„ GB lqø Ìj AxcKÚZ ekwcyd ÌbËmk AaêÐdxZK AMÞMxZk exkeìÿy, Zw gøwLøw KËk glw AdwgmøK„

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* xgÛxUm owiÛwËRøk AwtZd xQl 13,355,000 gMêiwBl Ggv oiþæ owiÛwËRøk ÌiwU ÌlwKovLøw 495,500,000 ­ gZêiwd mZw²yk PxlöËmk bmËK eÙxagyk ÌiwU ÌlwKovLøwk eÞwt GK-PZ×aêwvm  (J. H. Stembridge : British Empire, O. U. P.)

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GB ckËdk HxZpwxoK Agþÿwk iËcø icøjÖM ÌaËK AwcÖxdK jÖËM D£kËYk iËZw dZ×d ÌKwËdw AaêÐdxZK-owiwxRK Agþÿwk D¨g oºg pËZ ewËk dw„ owiÛwRøgwby þñwËaê AwiwËbk ÌbmËK k®wxd I Awibwxd DhËtkB gwRwËk (market) exkYZ KkwB xQl xgÛxUm mwoKËbk DË¥mø„ AwiwËbk ÌbËmk dwdwkKËik K^wPwiwl (raw materials) oþæwt ovMÞp KËk þñËbËm BvlË¡ ewVwËdw Ggv ÌoLwdKwk KlKwkLwdwt ÌoB K^wPwiwl ÌaËK Duedí dwdwkKËik eYøbÛgø GËbËm Awibwxd KËk PrwiÔËlø xg¢ßt Kkw xQl ZwËbk eÞcwd DË¥mø„ GB DË¥mø owcËdk eËa Zwkw AwiwËbk ÌbËmk dwdwxgc K×xUkxmùe I xmùeyËbk Ìjid cµvo KËkËQ, ÌZixd ÌbËmk owcwkY bxkbÛ RdowcwkYËK xdiêihwËg ÌmwnY KËkËQ Ggv GËbmyt gøgowgwxYRø I gxYKËmÛYyËK DuLwZ KËkËQ„ AZGg icøjÖËMk owiìæZìè ÌaËK AwcÖxdK jÖËMk cdZËìèk xgKwËmk ÌKwËdw HxZpwxoK jÖMox¬qËYk Dbt GËbËm ptxd Ggv Zw ptxd gËlB ÌkËdo^wËo’k ÌKwËdw ewúPw£ø iËWËlk eÞxZÅw GLwËd ptxd„

AwËM Ìj dMk I ÌQwU-ÌQwU dMkxmËùek Kaw gËlxQ Ggv xMÀ gw xmùeyovËNk Kaw, Ìo o¹Ë¬ AwkI GKU× exkûKwk KËk glw bkKwk„ xMËÀk Duex£ eÞoËŠ iwKêzo gËlËQd[6]

The necessity for association against the organized robber-nobility, the need for communal covered markets in an age when the industrialist was at the same time a merchant, the growing competition of the escaped serfs swarming into the rising towns, the feudal structure of the whole country: these combined to bring about the guilds.

GkKi ÌKwËdw gwþæg AaêÐdxZK Agþÿwk oÙxÄ ptxd AwiwËbk ÌbËm Ggv boÖøZweÞgY Rxibwk-ÌRwZbwËkk Ahwg dw awKËlI, ZwËbk Zwrdwt GËbËmk KwkØxmùeyËbk Aagw ‘serf’-Ëbk dMËkk oyiwk iËcø ewxlËt GËo AwZôkqwk Rdø blg¦ pËZ ptxd„ Zwk eÞcwd KwkY, GËbËmk bÙsiÔl gvmMZ gÙx£xhx£K RwxZgYêËhbgøgþÿw  (caste system) „ AwiwËbk ÌbËm KwkØxmËùek xgËmn xgKwm I ÑgxPË¢øk KwkY o¹Ë¬ iwKêo-Gk GB Dx£ß eÞxYcwdËjwMø :

Every workman had to be versed in a whole round of tasks, had to be able to make everything that was to be made with his tools. The limited commerce and the scanty communication between the individual towns, the lack of population and the narrow needs did not allow of a higher division of labour, and therefore every man who wished to become a master had to be proficient in the whole of his craft. Thus there is found with medieval craftsmen an interest in their special work and in proficiency in it, which was capable of rising to a narrow artistic sense.

Capital in these towns was a natural capital consisting of a house, the tools of the craft, and the natural, hereditary customers; and not being realizable, on account of the backwardness of commerce and the lack of circulation, it descended from father to son.

iwKêo GB Rdø KwkØxmùeyËbk iÔlcdËK ‘estate capital’ gËlËQd, KwkY ‘this capital was directly connected with the particular work of the owner, inseparable from it’ Ggv GB iÔlcËdk oËŠ ‘modern capital’-Gk ewaêKø †YMZ, KwkY ‘AwcÖxdK iÔlcd’ ‘can be assessed in money and which may be indifferently invested in this thing or that.’ AwiwËbk ÌbËmk KwkØxmùeyk RyxgKwk Rdø oKËl icøjÖËMk dMËk GËo xixlZ ptxd, AËdËK MÞwiwéËlB eÖkØnwdÖ¢ßËi gwo KËkËQ„ ZwkI eÞcwd KwkY gÙx£xdhêk gYêÐgniø„ oKl gÙx£k owiwxRK ijêwbw oiwd dt Ggv ÌKwËdw KwkØxmËùek ÑmxùeK Ìo#ëbjê jwB ÌpwK dw ÌKd, ZbdÖewËZ xmùeyk ijêwbw þñyKÚZ pZ dw„ Ìjid exúPigËŠ ÌWwKkw-xmùey, xP¢Kk, ÌgZg^wËmk xmùey eÞhÙxZk oËŠ iÙuxmùey KwVËLwbwBxmùey gw hwÆkËbk ebijêwbwk ewaêKø xgkwU„[7] GB gYêËhbRxdZ owiwxRK ijêwbwk xhdíZwk RdøB eÞcwdZ xgxhdí ÌMwÅyk KwkØxmùeyËbk eËq dMËk GËo xixlZ I ovNg¦ pItw oºg ptxd„ GËbËmk gxYKËbk oËŠI (obwMkËmÛYy) KwkØxmùeyËbk eÞZøq ÌKwËdw owiwxRK oóeKê xQl dw„ Zw Qwrw AwiwËbk ÌbËmk obwMkkw gYêMZhwËg oiwËR DËeqYyt xQl Ggv GB xgËhb xgÛxUm kwRËZòI bÔk ptxd„ eËk GB xgnËt AwËlwPdw KËkxQ„ GËbmyt obwMkkw gYêMZhwËg DËexqZ xQl gËl, AwiwËbk icøjÖMyt dMËk cyËk-cyËk  ‘burgher class’ Ggv Zw ÌaËK AwcÖxdK  ‘bourgeois’ ÌmÛYykI D¨g ptxd„ GxbK ÌaËK Pydw oiwËRk oËŠ AwiwËbk xKQÖUw xil AwËQ, xKìç AdøxbK ÌaËK Awgwk AxilI AwËQ AËdK„ GB xgnËtI eËk AwËlwPdw Kkw pËtËQ„

xgÛxUm mwoKkw xdËRËbk þñwËaêB GËbËmk þñwhwxgK AaêÐdxZK xgKwËm dwdwhwËg gwcw oÙxÄ KËkËQ„ GKaw AwËM gËlxQ„ Agwc gwxYËRøk Ggv xmËùewbøËik ÌjU×K× oÖËjwMoÖxgcw pËtxQl Zw MÞpY Kkw GËbËm ogêwËMÞ jwËbk DxPZ xQl ÌoB obwMkËmÛYy ­ Aaêwu M¬gxYK Zw¹ÖxlgxYK Ggv Adøwdø gxYKkw, Z^wkw Zw KËkdxd„ ÌKd KËkdxd eËk glxQ„ DâPgËYêk gwOwlyËbk iËcø ÌKD ÌKD GB eËa AMÞok pËtxQËld, Ìjid §wkKwdwa VwK×k, kwibÖlwl Ìb, ixZlwl myl Ggv BtvËgŠl ÌMwÅyk xWËkwRytwdËbk iËcø kwiËMwewl ÌNwn, eøwkyP^wb xi¢ eÞhÙxZ, xKìç Z^wkw Comprador-ÌmÛYyk, Aaêwu xgÛxUËmk Z^wËgbwk gøgowtyËmÛYyk hÔxiKw ÌQËr þñwcyd xmËùewbzËjwMyk þñwZìèø ARêd KkËZ ewËkdxd„[8] Zw Qwrw, xKQÖxbËdk iËcø ÌbLw jwt Ìj Z^wkw xgÛxUËmk Z^wËgbwk gøgowtyk hÔxiKw ÌQËr ¢ßËi dZ×d RxibwkËmÛYyk AwkwieÞb xglwoy hÔxiKw MÞpY KËkËQd, xgËmn KËk xPkþÿwty gËëbwgËþæk eËk„

KdêItwxlËok AwiËl xPkþÿwty gËëbwgþæ eÞgxZêZ pËlI GUw Z^wk   ixþæûKeÞoÔZ dt, jxbI BxZpwËo owcwkYZ ÌoB Kaw ÌlLw pËt awËK„ ÌKwóewxdk xWËkƒkkw AËdK AwËMB GB Rxibwkygøgþÿw eÞgZêËdk exkKùedw KËkxQËld„ pwåUwk gËlËQd[9]

nothing can be further from the historical truth than the idea that Cornwallis was the originator either of that system or of the Permanent Settlement. What Cornwallis realy did was to carry out a predetermined plan of the Court of Directors with a cautious delay…

KdêItwxlo xdËR Ìgm xgPqY mwoK xQËld Ggv xgÛxUËmk þñwaê xZxd Ìgm hwlhwËgB gÖSËZd„ ZwB GB dZ×d gøgþÿw eÞgZêËdk KËtKxbd AwËM xZxd ÌKwóewxdk xWËkƒkËbk KwËQ GKxU xPxVËZ ÌlËLd (6 iwPê 1793):

The large capitals possessed by many of the natives, which they will have no means of employing …will be applied to the purchase of the landed property as soon as the tenure is declared to be secured.

GËbËmk xKQÖ ÌlwËKk pwËZ AËdK iÔlcd Riw pËtËQ  ‘which they will have no means of employing’-KdêItwxlËok GB Kawk †kØZò LÖg exkûKwk„ Gk ek ÌKwËdw xgËmönY gw gøwLøwk eÞËtwRd pt dw GB Kaw ÌgwSwgwk Rdø Ìj þñwcyd xmùegwxYËRøk eËa GËbËmk iÔlcd xdËtwxRZ ÌpwK, ÌoUw xgÛxUËmk Kwiø xQl dw„ Zw dw pËl KdêItwxlo glËZd dw Ìj Rxibwky ÌKdw Qwrw Adø ÌKwËdwhwËg GËbmyt iÔlcd xdËtwËMk Dewt awKËg dw„ AZGg AwVwk mZËKk Comprador-ÌmÛYyk gwOwlykw j^wkw Ìgxdtwxd iÖâQÖx¥xMxk ÌbItwdy okKwky BZøwxb Kiê KËk eÞP×k Aaê oét KËkxQËld, Z^wkw xPkþÿwty gËëbwgËþæk eËk bËl-bËl ‘Rxibwk’ pËZ Awkº KkËld„ eÞwPyd gËdby Rxibwkkw xdxbêÄ xbdqËY kwRËKwËn eÞweø UwKw Riw xbËZ Ahøìæ dd„ ZwB dZ×d gËëbwgËþæk Krw AwBËdk fËl Z^wËbk Rxibwky GËK-GËK xdlwËi DVËZ lwMl Ggv mpËkk iÖâQÖx¥-Ìgxdtwdkw xdlwi ÌaËK ÌoB Rxibwky xKËd dZ×d Rxibwk pËZ awKËld„ pwåUwk gËlËQd (eÔËgêw£ß hÔxiKw)

The mournful story of the ruin of these and other once powerful families under the Sale Law for arrears is shown in detail in…During two years alone, 1796-98, estates bearing a revenue of Sicca Rs. 5521252, more than a fifth of the whole land tax of the Province, were advertised for sale for arrears…within twenty-two years of the Permanent Settlement, from one-third to one-half of whole landed property in Bengal had been sold on that account. The wave of the Permanent Settlement had, in truth, submerged the ancient houses of Bengal.

pwåUwk G Kaw glwk AËdK AwËM iwKêo Z^wk hwkZyt BxZpwËok LorwËZ DËlöL KËkxQËld.[10]

Results of ‘Settlement’: First product of this plunder of ‘communal and private property’ of the ryots : whole series of local risings of the ryots against the ‘landlords’ [conferred on them], involving: in some cases expulsion of the zemindars and stepping of the East India Co. into their place as owner; in other cases, impoverishment of the zemindars and compulsory or voluntary sale of their estates to pay of the arrears and private debts. Hence greater part off the province’s landholdings fell rapidly into the hands of a few city capitalists who had spare capital and readily invested it in land.

Karl Marx : Notes on Indian History (664-1858) : Moscow N. D.  GB MÖ‡š’i m¤úv`KgÊwj gvK©m-Gi GB Ô†bvUÕ m¤^‡Ü gš—e¨ K‡i‡Qb ‘This paragraph has been taken from Marx’s abstract of Kovalevsky’s book. The abstract immediately follows Marx’s chronological notes’.

GB dZ×d ÌMw¢wìæxkZ RxibwkËmÛYy PwlPlËd Awk-gøgpwËk ÌewnwK-exkâQËb gËdby RxibwkËbk ÌaËK oóeÔYê þñZìè GKxU ÌMwÅy ÌZw xQËldB, MÞwi I MÞwËik Rxibwkyk eÞxZ Z^wËbk iËdwhwg xQl AdøkKi„ RxibwkyËK Z^wkw Ìj-ÌKwËdw gøgowk iËZw iËd KkËZd Ggv xgxhdí þækk icøþñZòËhwMyËbk iwcøËi KÚnKËbk AiwdÖxnKhwËg ÌmwnY KËk xdËRËbk iÖdwfwk A‰ gÙx¦ KkËZ eÞtwoy pËZd„ xPkþÿwty gËëbwgËþæk fËl GB Ìj dZ×d oiwRxgdøwo pl, gwvlwk owiwxRK RygËd Zwk eÞxZx¢ßtw pl oÖbÔkeÞowky„ KdêItwxlo GËbËmk GKËmÛYyk ÌlwËKk pwËZ Ìj eÞP×k iÔlcd oxéZ AwËQ gËl DËlöL KËkËQd, ÌoUw oºg pl xK KËk? Aaêwu GËbËmk iÖâQÖx¥ Ìgxdtwdkw eÞP×k iÔlcd oét KkËld xK KËk? ‘þñwhwxgK AaêdyxZk (natural economy) exkgËZê ‘xgxdit AaêdyxZ’ (exchange economy) eÞgZêËdk fËl„  ‘The very existence of exchange value is a massive economic fact’ KwkY xgxditeÞcwd AaêdyxZk Rdø eÞmþæ oÖËjwM pl

to seek riches, not in the absurd form of a heap of perishable goods, but in the very convenient and mobile form of money or claims to money. The possession of money soon became an end in itself in an exchange economy.[11]

GB KwkËY GËbËmk comprador ÌmÛYy xgÛxUm mwoKËbk RÖxdtk Avmybwk pËt dwdwËK#mËl, AwVwk mZK ÌaËK Dxdm mZËKk eÞwt icøhwM ejêìæ eÞP×k Aaê DewRêd KËkxQËld Ggv Zw oétI KËkxQËld GB Rdø Ìj gøx£ßMZ gøwewËk ÌoB UwKw xdËtwM Kkwk xgËmn Dewt xQl dw„ KdêItwxlo ÌoBRdø eÞwt xdxúPìæ xQËld Ìj xPkþÿwty gøgþÿw eÞgZêËdk fËl dZ×d RxibwkyËZ GB e^ÖxR xdËtwM Kkwk oÖËjwM pËg„ ZwB pl, GB comprador-ÌmÛYy pl eÞcwdZ dZ×d RxibwkËmÛYy„ RxibwkyËZ Qwrw gwxK UwKw LkP pËZ awKl gøx£ßMZ xglwxoZwt, btwbwxqËYø ciêKËiê iwilw-iK¥iwt Ggv GBkKi AwkI AËdK AePtKËiê„ gwvlw ÌbËmk Ìj Ìbgwlt AwiwËbk Mgê Kkwk iËZw owvÆÚxZK KyxZê Zwk AxcKwvmB GB dZ×d RxibwkËbk AËaê þÿwxeZ„ Ìbghx£ßk Rdø dt, iËd pt eweiÖx£ßk Rdø Z^wkw Ìbgwlt eÞxZÅwt DbzËjwMy pd„ þÿweËZøk KyxZê xpËoËg AgmøB G†xl DËlöLø, xKìç Zwk ÌM#kg oÔ¢ck I Adøwdø ALøwZ ARwdw KwxkMkxmùeyËbk eÞweø„ GB oiþæ gøx£ßMZ xglwo I ixRê PxkZwËaêk Rdø ARoÛ Aaêgøt QwrwI ÌKgl Ìj#aoóex£k hwMwgwËUwtwkwk Rdø iwilwËZ (AËdK oit eÖkØnwdÖ¢ßËi„ KZ lq-lq UwKw Ìj LkP pËtËQ Zwk ÌKwËdw xpËog ÌdB, AwR ejêìæ ÌKD Zwk GKUw AwdÖiwxdK xpËog Kkwk ÌPÄw KËkdxd„ AdíeÞwmd xggwp mÛw¦ BZøwxb gøwewËk kwRoÔt jËšk iËZw LkËPk Kaw DËlöL dw KkwB hwl„ GB xgxP¢ AegøËtk GKUw AwdÖiwxdK xpowg KkwkI jxb oºg pZ ZwpËl ÌbLw ÌjZ Ìj ÌoB Aaê xbËt AwiwËbk Ìbm xmùewtËdk  (industrialization) eËa AËdKbÔk GxMËt ÌjËZ ewkZ, Agmø  jxb GËbËmk ÌlwËKk xmËùewbiËjwMy pgwk iËZw iËdwhwg awKZ Ggv mwoKkw ÌoLwËd ÌKwËdw Aìækwt oÙxÄ dw KkZ„

xgÛxUm mwoKkw GËbËm xZdxU owiwxRK ÌmÛYy ÑZxk KËkxQËld xdËRËbk eÞmwoxdK xhx£þ溆xlËK oÖbÙs Kkwk Rdø„ ÌmÛYy†xl pl

            K. dwMxkK Comprador-ÌmÛYy„

            L. Awcw-dwMxkK Awcw-MÞwiø RxibwkËmÛYy„

            M. MÞwiø I dwMxkK dZ×d icøxg£ËmÛYy„

dwMxkK icøxgË£k iËcø dZ×d xmxqZkwI AwËQd, jwËbk ÌiKËl mwoK I mwxoËZk iËcø bwlwlþñkÕe gËlËQd„ GB dZ×d ÌmÛYyxgdøwËok fËl BvËkRËbk eËq xgmwl mwod-ÌmwnYgøgþÿw ‘institutionalise’ Kkw opËRB oºg pt„ MÞwi I mpËkk iËcø GKUw þÿwty xgËâQb pËt jwt Ggv ÌoUw ËKgl AwxaêK oÖLþñwâQëbø gw Rygdjw¢wk xgËâQb dt, Mhyk iwdxoK  xgËâQbI gËU„ oKl ÌmÛYyk  ‘town animal’ (Marx) xpvoÛ eÂk iËZw ZwËbk UwKwk q×cw ÌiUwgwk Rdø MÞwËik xbËK bÙxÄ xdg¦ KËk Ggv iÔlZ KÚnKËbk ÌmwnY KËkB ÌoB q×cw ÌiUwËZ awËK„

GkKi AaêÐdxZK Agþÿwk iËcø owiìæZìè ÌaËK cdZËìè D£kËYk ÌKwËdw HxZpwxoK lqY o¬wd Kkw Aaêpyd„ owiìæZËìèk oËŠ cdZËìèk owiwxRK-owvÆÚxZk xgËâQbI GB Agþÿwt oºg dt„ oºg jxb dw pt ZwpËl oiwR-xgšwdykw Ìj dgRwMÙxZk (Renaissance) ‘typological importance’-Gk Kaw  ‘first cultural and social breach between the Middle Ages and modern times’ gËl DËlöL KËkËQd, Zw GËbËm ptxd„ AZGg BËtwËkweyt iËWËlk ÌKwËdw AwcÖxdK dgRwMkY gwvlw ÌbËm Aagw gwOwly oiwËR ptxd„ Awikw BËtwËkweyt xgbøw BvËkËRk AwiËl xmqw KËk ogxKQÖB ÌoB xgbøwk AwËlwËK ÌbLËZ I xgPwk KkËZ xmËLxQ„ ZwB ÌowWwk ÌgwZËlk DâQòxoZ gÖbgÖËbk iËZw LwxdKUw owixtK AwbmêMZ xP£Pwélø GËbËmk KËtKRd gøx£ßk iËcø lqø KËk Ggv Ìkl-Mwxrk gwûeyt Bx™Ëdk m² Awk KËtKxU q×Ëb KwkLwdwk Ìh^w ÂËd Awikw ÌhËgxQ AwiwËbk ÌbËm BËtwËkwËek iËZw ÌkËdo^wËok pwItw gBËQ„ AwiwËbk hwgdw hÖl, owbÙmøËgwc hÖl„ pwItw gËtxQl oiwËRk DekZlwk xPËlËKwVwk GKxU ÌQwU AwcËLwlw Rwdlw xbËt„ ÌoB pwItw KwkI MwËt lwËMxd, iËd ÌZw dtB„ dgRwMkY ptxd, jw ÌlLw pËtËQ, GLdI ÌlLw pt, Zw AxZKaw„

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xpëbÖ mwþèKwkkw (eÞwPyd I icøjÖËMk GxlUËmÛYy) gËld Ìj RËdôk §wkwB ’gYê’ xVK pt, Aaêwu K×l RdôMZ„ gÛwÊËYk eÖ¢ gÛwÊY, qx¢Ëtk eÖ¢ qx¢t, ÑgËmøk eÖ¢ Ñgmø, mÔËbÛk eÖ¢ mÔbÛ, GBUwB xpëbÖoiwËRk xPkþÿwty RwxZgYêMZ gøgþÿw Ggv þñtv hMgwdB GB gøgþÿwk eÞgZêK„ hMgwd xdËRB gYê oÙxÄ KËkËQd„ xZxd iÖL ÌaËK gÛwÊY, gwÉ ÌaËK qx¢t, EkØ ÌaËK Ñgmø Ggv ebjÖMl ÌaËK mÔbÛ oÙxÄ KËkd :

            iÖLZ: ÌowpoÙRx§eÞwdz gwÉhøwv qx¢twvþæaw„

            ÑgmøwvúPweÔøkØËZw kwRdz mÔbÛwdz Ñg ewbþæaw €

                                                                        ipwhwkZ, hyûôegê 67/19

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                        qx¢t: mZgnêy P bmgnêy x§ËRw£i:„

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                                                                                    AdÖmwodegê 8/21

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hwkZ I PyËdk owiwxRK owbÙmø GLwËd xgËmnhwËg lqø Kkwk iËZw„ PyËdI BËtwËkwËek iËZw ‘ËkËdo^wo’ ptxd, hwkËZI ptxd, Ggv dw pgwk KwkY bÖB ÌbËmB eÞwt GKkKi„ xKìç ÌkËdo^wo dw pgwk KwkY AËdKUw GKkKi pËlI, hwkZ I PyËdk iËcø owiwxRK ÑgowbÙmøI AwËQ AËdK„ Ìjid hwkZ gÉ hwnwhwny, Pyd Zw dt„ Ìjid PyËdk oiwËR hwkËZk xpëbÖoiwËRk iËZw ÌKwËdw RwxZgYêËhb ÌdB, AaP PyËd GKUw gÙx£MZ owiwxRK ijêwbwËhb AwËQ„ GB gÙx£MZ ijêwbwËhËbk ÌqË¢ hwkZ-PyËdk owbÙmø AwËQ Ggv ÌkËdo^wËok jwgZyt AdÖeÞwYdwk AeiÙZ×øI DhtËbËm GB GKB KwkËY NËUËQ„ xKìç gÙx£Ëhb RdôMZ I K×lgYêMZ pgwk Rdø hwkZyt oiwËR dgRwMkY gøwpZ pgwk †kØZò AwkI AËdK Ìgxm„

ÌKixgÛËRk eÞLøwZ xgšwdy Pydxgmwkb AcøweK ÌRwËof dyWpwi (Joseph Needham) byNêKwl PyËdk xgšwd I ÌUKËdwlxRk xgKwËmk oËŠ PydwoiwËRk MrËdk oóeKê xdËt MËgnYw KËkËQd Ggv PyËd ÌKd BËtwËkweyt c^wËPk ÌkËdo^wo ptxd Zwk KwkYI xgËmönY KËkËQd„ eÞoŠZ hwkËZk KawI xZxd iËcø-iËcø D¤wed KËkËQd Ggv gËlËQd Ìj hwkZyt oiwËRk xgxmÄ Mrd I BxZpwËok iËcøB dgRwMÙxZk ÌeÞkYwk AhwËgk KwkY LÖ^ËR ewItw jwËg„ dyWpwËik PydwoiwËRk BxZpwo KËtKxU LË¡ eÞKwxmZ pËtËQ, Ìjid

Science and Civilisation in China. 7 Vols, 11 parts : London The Grand Titration, Science and Society in East and West London 1969

Clerks and Craftsmen in China and the West, London 1970. AwiwËbk eÞxZewbø xgnt eÞoËŠ dyWpwËik GB AwËlwPdw AZøìæ †kØZòeÔYê gËl GLwËd ovËqËe Zw DËlöL KkxQ„ dyWpwi gËlËQd

whoever would explain the failure of Chinese society to develop modern scince had better begin by explaining the faiture of Chinese society to develop mercantile and then industrial capitalism. Whatever the individual prepossessions Western historians of science, all are necessitated to admit that from the fifteenth century A. D. onwards a complex of changes occurred; the renaissance cannot be thought of without the rise of modern science and none of them can be thought of without the rise of capitalism, capitalist society and the decline and disappearance of feudalism… The fact is that in the spontaneous autochthonous development of Chinese society no drastic change parallel to the renaissance and the scientific revolution in the West, occurred at all.

The Grand Titration, pp.39-40

GLwËd PydwoiwR o¹Ë¬ dyWpwi jw gËlËQd Zw hwkZyt oiwËRk ÌqË¢I eÞwt gËYê-gËYê eÞËjwRø„ eÞoŠZ ÌoKawI xZxd DËlöL KËkËQ

The bureaucratic-feudal system of traditional China proved to be one of the most stable forms of social order ever developed…it played a leading part in assuring for Chinese culture a continuity…above all, it meant (as in India) that there was no indigenous development of capitalism. The mandarinate system was so successful that it inhibited the rise of the merchants to power in the State; it walled up their guilds in the restricted role of friendly and benefit societies; it nipped capitalist accumulation in the bud…

Within the Four Seas, p. 34.

GLwËd ÌKgl ‘mandarinate system’-Gk gbËl ‘caste system’ KawxU gxoËt hwkZyt oiwËRk ÌqË¢I dyWpwËik GB Dx£ß eÞËtwM Kkw jwt„ RwxZËhËbk Rdø xMÀ gw xmùeyovËNk xgKwmI hwkZyt oiwËR LÖg ovKyYê I oyiwg¦„ KwËRB ‘capital accumulation’ Ggv cdZËìèk þñwhwxgK xgKwm AwiwËbk ÌbËm ptxd„ AwkI exkûKwk KËk dyWpwi gËlËQd

Now if the Mandarinate was supreme, if the Civil Service was always the great power, there was a bar to the development of any other group in society, so that the merchants were always kept down and unable to rise to a position of power in the State. They had guilds, it is true, but these were never as important as in Europe. Here we might be putting our finger on the main cause of the failure of Chinese civilization to develop modern technology, because in Europe (as in universally admitted) the development of technology was closely bound up with the rise of the merchant class to power. It is perhaps a question of who is going to put up the money for scientific discovery – it is not the Emperor, it is not the feudal lords; they fear change rather than welcome it. But when you come to the merchants, they are the people who will finance research in order do deveplop new forms of production and trade; and such was indeed the fact in Eurropean history. Chinese society called ‘bureaucratic feudalism’, and that may go a long way to explain why the Chineses,  in spite of their brilliant successes in earlier science and technology, were not able, as their colleagues in Europe were, to break through the bonds  of medieval ideas and advance to what we call modern science and technology. I think, one of the great reasons is that China was fundamentally an irrigation-agricultural civilization as contrasted with the pastoral-navigational civilization of Europe; with the consequent prevention of the merchants’ rise to power.

Clerks and Craftsmen in China and the West, p. 83

BËtwËkwËe xgšwd I ÌUKËdwlxRk xgKwËmk oËŠ gxYKËmÛYyk NxdÅ eÞZøq oóeKê xQl„ owiìæjÖËMk kwRwkw Aagw Z^wËbk AwxmÛZ AiwZø Awilwkw xgšwd-ÌUKËdwlxRk DdíxZk gøwewËk Dbwoyd xQËld, ÌjËpZ× xgšwËdk DdíxZ Z^wËbk ÌmÛYyþñwaêxgËkwcy„ xKìç gxYKkw Z^wËbk ÌmÛYyþñwËaêk Rdø gwxYRø I DuewbËdk DdíxZ Kwidw KkËZd Ggv ÌoB KwkËY xgšwËdk MËgnYwt Duowp xbËZd„ BËtwËkweyt oiwËR xgšwËdk PPêw, ÌUKËdwlxRk DdíxZ gxYKËbk AwxaêK AwdÖKÔËløB oºg pËtËQ„ PyËd I hwkËZ Zw ptxd„ gxYKËmÛYy Gxmtwk GB bÖB ipwËbËm DuewbdkyxZk DdíxZk gøwewËk AwËb# Duowpy xQËld dw Ggv gwxYËRøk eÞowËkI Z^wkw ÌKwËdw ox¢ßt hÔxiKw MÞpY KËkdxd„ KwkY Pyd I hwkËZk xfDWwxlRËik þñkÕe þñZìè Ggv ÌoLwËd gxYKËmÛYyk ÌKwËdw owiwxRK oóiwd xQl dw, ZwËbk gwxYRøKiêËKI AmÛ¦wk ÌPwËL ÌbLw pZ„ gxYKkw ZwB GB bÖB ÌbËm owiwxRK eÞxZex£ Aagw kwÄÛyt eÞhÖZò ARêd KkËZ ewËkdxd„ dyWpwi gËlËQd, GkKi HxZpwxoK Agþÿwk eÞcwd KwkY pl, PyËdk ohøZw  ‘irrigational-agricultural civilisation’, BËtwËkwËek iËZw ‘pastoral-navigational’ dt, ZwB gxYKËbk eÞwcwdø PydwoiwËR þñyKÚZ ptxd„ hwkËZk ÌqË¢I xVK ZwB pËtËQ„ hwkZyt ohøZwk gxdtwb pl ÌoP-KÚxn, ZwB gxYKkw ÌmÛYykÕËe oiwËR ÌKwËdw eÞhwg xgþæwk KkËZ ewËkdxd„ Zwk Dek hwkËZk RwxZgYêËhb gøgþÿwk Rdø gxYKkw ÌKwËdw owiwxRK ijêwbw lwh KËkdxd, xPkKwl DËexqZ pËtËQd„ PyËdk iËZw hwkËZI eÞwPyd xpëbÖjÖËM xgšwËdk AdÖmyld I DdíxZ jËaÄ pËtxQl, xKìç BËtwËkwËek iËZw Zwk þñwhwxgK HxZpwxoK xgKwm oºg ptxd gxYKËbk JbwËoøk Rdø„ ÌkËdo^woI GB KwkËY ptxd„

PyËdk oiwRMrËdk xhx£ KiêMZ þæËkk Dek eÞxZxÅZ, hwkËZk iËZw RdôKÖlMZ þæËkk Dek dt„ PyËdk RdËMwÅyk GB þæk¢ßiËK ÌoBRdø dyWpwi ‘estates’ gËlËQd, ‘classes’ dt (‘We need not call them classes’ – Neddham)„ GB owiwxRK þækxgdøwËok iËcøI Pyd I hwkËZk oËŠ Ìi#l ewaêKø AwËQ„ Ìjid

         PyËdk oiwR

my         Shih – the scholar-gentry

dÖO       Nung – the farmers

K×O       Kung – the artisans

møwO     Shang – the merchants,

     hwkZyt oiwR

gÛwÊY    GxlUËMwÅy

qx¢t   mwoKËMwÅy, Ìjw¦w

Ñgmø     gxYK-gøgowty

mÔbÛ       KÚnK I Adøwdø gÙx£Rygy

GLwËd PydwoiwR I hwkZyt oiwËRk þækxgdøwËok owbÙmø-ÑgowbÙmø DhtB xgËmnhwËg lqø Kkwk iËZw„ hwkZyt oiwËR gxYKRËdk þÿwd xdiíþæËk pËlI ‘ZÚZyt’ (‘Ñgmø’), xKìç PydwoiwËR gxYKkw xdiíZi PZ×aê þækh֣߄ þæk¢ßËik iËcø GKxU cwËek ewaêKø ÌZid DËlöLø gw †kØZòeÔYê dt„ xKìç PydwoiwËRk MrËdk ÑgxmÄø pl, KÚxnRygyËbk þÿwd AËdK DËâP x§Zyt þæËk, gÖx¦Rygy-hbÛËmÛYyk xVK eËk„ AaP hwkZyt xpëbÖoiwËR KÚxnRygykw ogêxdií PZ×aê þæËk ‘mÔbÛ’ gËl AxhxpZ, jxbI PyËdk iËZw hwkËZk ohøZwI KÚxn-ÌoPxhx£K„ Aaêwu hwkZyt oiwËRk ogêeÞcwd gÙp£i þækxU ogêwxcK AgËpxlZ DËexqZ Ggv ZwËbk ÌKwËdw owiwxRK ebijêwbw ÌdB, xKìç PydwoiwËR GB gÙp£i RdþæËkk jËaÄ ebijêwbw AwËQ Ggv oËgêwâP þæËkk gÖx¦RygyËbk eËkB ZwËbk þÿwd„ GB ewaêKø AZøìæ †kØZòeÔYê Ggv GB ewaêËKøk Rdø Pyd I hwkËZk kwRÐdxZK-owiwxRK BxZpwËok ekgZêy-¢ßixgKwËmk Ìi#l ewaêKø NËUËQ„ ÌoKaw eËk DËlöL Kkg„

gxYKRdËMwÅy eÞoËŠ glw jwt, Pydw I hwkZyt oiwËRk xgKwËmk ewaêKø NËUxd„ gwOwly oiwËRk ÌqË¢I GKaw oZø„ PydwoiwËR Ìjid hwkZyt oiwËRI ÌZixd, eÞwPyd jÖËMk eËk, xgšwd I ÌUKËdwlxRk AMÞMxZ kئ pËtËQ eÞcwdZ GKxU KwkËY, Ggv ÌoB KwkYxU pl gxYKRËdk eÞxZ owiwxRK AgËplw„ gxYKRËdk ÌKwËdw ijêwbw AwiwËbk oiwËR ÌdB„ eÞP×k cdoóex£k iwxlK pËlI gxYKkw gxYK gw Ñgmø Ggv gÛwÊËYkw gÛwÊY, qx¢tkw qx¢t„ gÛwÊYkw bxkbÛ pËkI Ñgmø I mÔbÛËbk Ìogwk AxcKwky, †kØxMxkk AxcKwky„ ZwB Ñgmø gxYKkw owiwxRK ¢ßËiwdíxZk gøwewËk Dbwoyd„ oiMÞ hwkËZk Kaw Rwxd dw, xKìç gwvlw ÌbËmk MÞwËi-MÞwËi NÖËk AdÖo¬wd KËk ÌbËLxQ Ìj AwiwËbk ÌbËmk ÑgmøK×Ëlwbzhg gxYKRËdkw DâPþæËkk (DâPgËYêk) gÛwÊY-qx¢tËbk  ‘style of living’ gw Rygdjw¢w AdÖKkY KËkËQd, Z^wËbk iËZw gr-gr eÞwowb-Z×lø A›wxlKw, VwK×kgwxr, ÌbgËbgyk ixëbk BZøwxb xdiêwY KËkËQd„ owiwxRK DâPijêwbwlwËhk gøaêZwËK GBhwËg Z^wkw eÔkY KËkËQd iwdxoK ÌqË¢„ gwvlwk gxYKeÞcwd MÞwËi-MÞwËi GB bÙmø ÌbLËl xgxþôZ pËZ pt„* iËd pt Ìjd GKxU ‘archaeological site’-G DexþÿZ pËtxQ„ gwvlwt Zaw hwkËZ gxYKRËdkw DuewbdkyxZk DdítËdk Rdø Aagw gwxYËRøk eÞowËkk Rdø xgšwd-ÌUKËdwlxRk AdÖmylËd ÌKwËdw Duowp Ìbdxd„ ¢ßËi Z^wkw xdËRkw DâPgËYêk iËZw owiìæZËìèkB ÌewnKZw KËkËQd, xdËRkw Rxibwk-ËRwZbwk pËtËQd  Ggv Rygdjw¢wk xbK ÌaËKI icøjÖËMk owiìæZwxìèK cwkw Aq×Yí ÌkËLËQd„ gwvlw ÌbËm gw hwkËZ ÌoBRdø ewúPw£ø dgRwMÙxZk ÌKwËdw lqY ÌbLw Ìbtxd, xbËZ ewËk dw„ jw NËUËQ ÌoUwËK oiwRxgšwËdk hwnwt  ‘acculturation’ gw ovÆÚxZ-ovNwZRxdZ AwbËmêk AwbwdeÞbwd I ximÛY glw jwt„ Ggv GB owvÆÚxZK AwbwdeÞbwd I ximÛYI oiwËRk AxZovKyYê DâPþæËk DâPgËYêk iËcø oyiwg¦„

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* GxgnËt exúPigËŠk AËdK gxYKeÞcwd MÞwËik xggkYop oxgþæwËk Awxi AwËlwPdw KËkxQ„ ‘exúPigËŠk ovÆÚxZ’ dZ×d exkgxcêZ x§Zyt ovÆkËYk eÞai (1976), x§Zyt (1978) Ggv ZÚZyt L¡ (1979)-G bÛÄgø„

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jÖM-jÖM cËk oiwRMrËdk GB RdôMZ RwxZgYêËhËbk þækxgdøwo Adr awKwk Rdø eÞËZøK þæËk xgxhdí gËYêk Rygdcwkw GK AxZxgxP¢ kÕe cwkY KËkËQ AwiwËbk ÌbËm„ eÞËZøK gËYêk iËcø ÌmwnK-ÌmwxnËZk ÌmÛYyËhb ÌbLw xbËtËQ Ggv DâPxdPgËYêk iËcøI GB ÌmÛYyËhb eÞKU pËtËQ„ Ìjid pxkRdËbk xgxhdí K×lMZ RwxZk iËcø ÌmÛYykÕewtY pËtËQ, cxdK PiêKwk bxkbÛ PiêKwkËbk AaêÐdxZK þñwËaê Ggv RwËZk ÌbwpwB xbËt ÌmwnY KkËQ, ÌZixd gÛwÊY Rxibwk xdiígËYêk bxkbÛ KÚnKËbk Dek ÌmÛYyMZ I gYêMZhwËg x§iÖLy o^wrwmyk iËZw AZøwPwk I ÌmwnY PwxlËtËQ„ RwxZ  (caste) I †kªYx (class) xgxP¢hwËg oiwRMrËdk þæËk þæËk xgËhb oÙxÄ KËkËQ„ Zwk fËl oiwËRk þækxgdøwo AwkI RxUl pËtËQ Ggv owiwxRK gwþæg kÕeI (sooial reality) AËdK Ìgxm AþeÄ pËtËQ„ RwxZxgËkwc I ÌmÛYyxgËkwc gwþægZwk þæËk GidhwËg xiËlxiËm AwËQ Ìj ÌKwdUw xK Zw þeÄ ÌgwSw jwt dw„ gZêiwËd ZwB cdZìè I ÌUKËdwlxRk jËaÄ DdíxZ oË£òI AwiwËbk ÌbËm AxcKwvm ÌmÛYyxgËkwc RwxZgYêxgËkwc gËl iËd pt pt Ggv gwBËkk eÞZyxZ Ìj gwþæg oZø dt Zw AËdK ÌqË¢B Awikw gÖxS dw„ GBhwËg oiwËRk eÞËZøKxU þæk GKUw þñtvx¢ßt xþÿxZ I MxZ lwh KËkËQ (‘the relative autonomy with which they operate’ – Godelier) jw Awikw Delx³ KkËZ ewxk dw Ggv AwiwËbk jwxìèK iwKêoyt Z£òšwdI GB þæk†xlk gwþæg giê Ìhb KkËZ ewËk dw„ AwRËKk cdZwxìèK I ÌUKËdwlxRKwl AMÞMxZk xbËdI ZwB AwiwËbk oiwËRk mwcw-eÞmwLwk oËŠ owiìæZËìèk Dewbwd†xk lZwk iËZw RxrËt AwËQ ÌbLw jwt, xgËmn KËk xPìæwhwgdwk ÌqË¢„

AwiwËbk ÌbËmk gÙp£i RdËmÛYy  KÚnKkw xdiíZi mÔbÛgYêhÖ£ß pgwk fËl Ìj kwRÐdxZK UÛøwxRxW NËUËQ Zw AwkI ÌmwPdyt„ PyËd KÚxnRygykw oiwËRk x§Zyt þækhÖ£ß, DPPZi þæËkk eËkB ZwËbk þÿwd, GKaw AwËM gËlxQ„ ÌoBRdø PyËdk KxiDxdýU AwËëbwld Ggv KxiDxdýU ewxUê opËRB MÞwixhx£K I KÚnKËmÛYyxdhêk pËZ ÌeËkËQ, jw hwkZyt kwRdyxZk KxiDxdýU AwËëbwlËdk BxZpwËo ptxd„ hwkËZk KxiDxdýU AwËëbwld mpkxhx£K icøxg£xdhêk pgwk Rdø AwR Zwk GB iiêwxìæK exkYxZ pËtËQ„ htwgp bwxkbÛø I ÌmwnYeyrd oË£òI GËbËmk KxiDxdýU ewxUê†xl AwRI ZwB mwoKËmÛwnKËmÛYyk ÌlRÖr pËt xdËRËbk o£w ÌKwdkKËi gRwt ÌkËL PËlËQ, GidxK j^wkw KxiDxdýUËbk iËcø owâPw xgeögy, eÞKÚZ ‘iwKêzxoýU-ÌlxdxdýU’ gËl bwxg KËkd Z^wËbk iËcø AËdËK (oKËl AgmøB dd) icøxg£ gwgÖeÞcwd kwRdyxZËZB iMí, ÌKgl Z£òKawk gyR†xr KwUËQd, Ggv MÞwi gw KÚnK Z^wËbk mpËkk KxfpwDËok Awœw ÌaËK AËdK bÔËk„ gZêiwd xgvmmZw²yk o£Ëkk bmËK Ìjid iwKêoyt ZË£òk g^wcwoÔ¢ eÞËtwM KËk, AwiwËbk pZhwMw bxkbÛËbËm ÌKd xgeög  (revolution) ptxd Ggv pgwk Aw oºwgdw ÌdB Zw gøwLøw Kkw jwt dw, ÌZixd Dxdm mZËKk ‘ÌkËdo^wo’ gw dgRwMÙxZ iwKêo xlxLZ ‘hwkËZ BvËkRmwoËdk flwfl’ xgnËt eÞgˬk owpwËjø ‘HxZpwxoK oZø’ gËl eÞiwY Kkw jwt dw„ gwvlwk Zaw hwkËZk dgRwMÙxZ Ìj GKxU AxZKaw  (myth), G oZø gwþæg BxZpwËok icø xbËt eÞKU pËt IËV„